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From the dawn
of recorded history
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to the present day,
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humankind has struggled
with its darker nature.
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We know that psychopaths
can torture and kill
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without remorse,
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but what compels
seemingly normal people
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to commit acts of cruelty
and violence?
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Today, researchers are
uncovering the hidden forces
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that inflame our inner demons,
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looking for ways to neutralize
our deadliest urges
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and change human nature.
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Can we eliminate evil?
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Space, time, life itself.
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The secrets of the cosmos
lie through the wormhole.
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♪ Through the Wormhole 03x07 ♪
Can we eliminate evil?
Original Air Date on July 18, 2012
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== sync, corrected by elderman ==
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Few people
consider themselves evil,
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yet evil seems
an inescapable part of life.
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The mystery is -- why?
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For millennia,
we blamed the devil --
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a creature of darkness that made
us do terrible things.
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Today, most Christians believe
Satan is just a symbol.
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Psychologists and brain
scientists have shown us
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that the evil we fear
comes from within ourselves.
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Will it always be there,
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or can science find
its roots and destroy it?
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When I was about 9 years old,
we moved back to Chicago.
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Being new in the neighborhood,
I became the target of a bully.
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One day,
I decided enough was enough.
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But as I watched him
lying there on the ground,
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I found I just couldn't savor
my unexpected victory.
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I wondered,
what made this kid so mean?
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Are some people just born bad?
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And cut!
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So, what I need you to do
for the next one
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is really curl out a bit more.
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I need to see more pain
in there.
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In Amsterdam,
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neuroscientist Christian Keysers
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is looking for the source
of human cruelty.
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Okay, so I really want to seem
as I'm fighting, where...
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Christian
investigates empathy --
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our ability to identify
and respond
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to what someone else
thinks or feels.
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Okay, that was good.
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To find out how empathy works
in our brains,
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Christian makes short films
of painful acts
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to screen for test subjects.
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We need very controlled stimuli,
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where we just see two or three
seconds of pain,
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and we need to repeat many
of them,
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which is why we need
to make them ourselves.
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So our actors are typically our
graduate students and postdocs,
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because they know
what they're doing
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and they can take some pain.
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Christian screens
his torture films
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in a theater
unlike any on earth.
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Magnetic sensors
inside this fMRI machine
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will peer deep
into this man's brain,
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showing which areas are active
when he experiences empathy.
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Okay, so I'll give you
this button box.
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What I want you to do is,
each time,
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to rate what you felt
in this particular trial.
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First, Christian records what
happens in the subject's brain
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when he sees someone else
in pain.
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Then he measures what happens
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when the subject experiences
pain first-hand.
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Now he compares the brain scans.
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So, the emotional empathy
we've been studying here,
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you would mainly see in parts
of your brain
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that are not on the surface
of your brain,
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but inside of the insula
that's a little bit deeper here,
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and, really, in the midline
between your two hemispheres.
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Okay, so what you're seeing here
is basically in red --
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the brain activity that happened
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while we were hitting
the subjects in the scanner.
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And then here, you see two of
the emotional-brain regions.
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They really add this feeling of
unpleasantness to what you feel.
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So, they're telling you, kind
of, "Ouch, I don't like that."
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And so what we're seeing here,
in the bottom,
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the brain activity that happens
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while the subject was watching
somebody else's pain.
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All of these more emotional
areas get reactivated,
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as if the subject had been
feeling pain himself.
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Whenever you see the pain
of somebody else,
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you will share it
inside of yourself.
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The other person
becomes part of yourself.
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The pain of others is not just
something you see out there.
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It basically comes
inside of you,
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and it becomes your pain,
as well.
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After screening
hundreds of people,
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Christian believes
that empathy is hard-wired
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into nearly all of our brains,
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but it is not
distributed equally.
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There is a curve of empathy.
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Some people
are extremely empathetic,
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others feel almost nothing.
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Think of a romantic movie.
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Most of us get caught up
in the emotions on screen.
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But -- but why?
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This has to be the end.
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Goodbye.
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But for a few of us,
it plays like this.
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People with low empathy
see and hear things differently
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because their brains
work differently.
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Information flows
through most brains
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like boats move along the canals
of Amsterdam.
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But in some brains,
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that movement is impeded by
narrow, or blocked, channels.
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So, if you imagine
that back there,
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you would have
the visual-brain areas
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that see what happens to others,
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and down there, you would have
the emotional areas
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that normally feel your pain.
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And we think that what makes
the difference, basically,
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between a very empathic person
and a less empathic person
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is just the size of the canal
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that brings the information from
the visual part of your brain
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to the emotional part,
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in which you will share the pain
of other people.
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And what of the
monsters of our nightmares --
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the psychopathic killers who
look normal on the outside...
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...but are twisted
on the inside?
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It is often said that
psychopaths have no empathy,
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and this lack of empathy
makes them evil.
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They are able to torture
and kill
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because they can't relate
to other people.
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Christian disagrees.
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Well, I think the finding
that surprised us most
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was actually the study
on psychopaths.
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We went in there
with a simple idea
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that evil people,
like psychopaths,
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would just lack empathy,
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and what we actually
saw in this study
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is that what makes them evil
is more complex.
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It's not that they lack
the capacity for empathy --
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they just don't use it
spontaneously.
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But if they want to,
because, for instance,
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it serves the purpose
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of fooling somebody into giving
them all their money,
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then they're quite able
to empathize
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and really get in
to people's minds.
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So empathy
is not everything.
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To keep from falling into evil,
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we also need a moral system
to guide our behavior --
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a code of conduct that helps us
fit in to society
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and act in
a non-destructive way.
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Scientists Karen Wynn and
Paul Bloom of Yale University
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believe that moral code may be
written into us at birth.
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That is a lot of duck
you're fitting in your mouth.
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I've been studying babies now
for just a little over 20 years.
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The more that I see of them,
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the more complex they become.
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There is a lot going on
in there,
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and it's far more rich
and complex
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of a mental life
than we had ever thought.
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By studying babies,
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you get to see humans before
they're contaminated by culture,
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by television, by a lot
of social interactions,
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by sex and romance.
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You get to see humans, in some
sense, in their purest form,
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and you could ask,
"what's our natures?
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"Are we kind? Are we cruel?
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Are we morally intelligent?
Can we tell good from evil?"
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And the work I'm doing here
with my colleague
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suggests that very early on
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there's some fundamental
moral sense --
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some moral instinct
that's present in all of us.
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How do you pose
moral questions to a baby?
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Karen devised a kind
of morality play
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for babies to watch and judge.
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We show babies
a little puppet show
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in which this one puppet
is trying to open a box,
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and he's trying and he's trying
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and he just can't quite get it
on his own,
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and another puppet comes along
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and grabs the other side of the
box lid and helps him open it.
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They then see the little puppet.
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He's trying again
to open the box,
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and a different puppet
comes along
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and jumps on top of the box lid,
slams it shut.
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Oh!
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And so our question
to the babies is,
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"Babies, do you have
any different feelings
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"towards these two characters --
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"towards the one who helped,
in a nice fashion, open the box,
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"and towards this other,
who just really, quite rudely,
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"slams it down
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and foils this guy's attempts
to get in to the box?"
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Which one do you like?
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And we find that, very reliably,
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babies, even as young
as five and six months of age,
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will reach towards and reach
for the helpful puppet.
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That one!
Okay, good job!
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Layla has chosen
the good puppet.
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Between 80% and 95%
of babies do.
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Paul and Karen believe
that this is a sign
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that babies are drawn
towards kindness
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and away from
antisocial behavior.
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But if most of us are born good,
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why do some of us
turn out so bad?
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00:11:07,248 --> 00:11:09,082
Well,
there's all sorts of ways
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in which our sense of good
could get perverted.
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If you're brought up
in a culture
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which teaches you
to be dismissive of others,
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which rewards selfishness,
which rewards bad behavior,
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00:11:18,093 --> 00:11:20,994
your sense of empathy
could be blunted.
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00:11:20,996 --> 00:11:24,931
So we have this built-in
morality, but it's fragile.
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Once we descend
into darkness --
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assault, rape, murder --
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00:11:30,739 --> 00:11:32,305
are we lost,
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00:11:32,307 --> 00:11:36,577
or can the impulses that lead
to evil be squelched?
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00:11:36,579 --> 00:11:38,245
This man thinks so.
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00:11:38,247 --> 00:11:41,448
He believes we can strengthen
our brains
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00:11:41,450 --> 00:11:43,951
and crush the evil within.
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Deep inside every human being
is an animal --
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00:11:49,179 --> 00:11:52,514
a creature whose only goal
is survival.
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00:11:52,811 --> 00:11:56,346
Most of us can contain
the animal within,
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00:11:56,348 --> 00:12:00,950
but we all know people who yield
to their baser impulses.
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00:12:01,190 --> 00:12:05,859
Sometimes their actions
have terrible consequences.
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00:12:05,861 --> 00:12:09,763
We blame these people
for their evil acts,
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00:12:09,765 --> 00:12:13,067
but do they really have
a choice?
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00:12:13,069 --> 00:12:16,237
After years of probing
the human mind,
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00:12:16,239 --> 00:12:18,505
neuroscientist David Eagleman
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00:12:18,507 --> 00:12:21,341
of the Baylor
College of Medicine
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00:12:21,343 --> 00:12:24,511
has come to
a startling conclusion --
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00:12:24,513 --> 00:12:28,782
with a little bad luck,
we could all become monsters.
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00:12:28,784 --> 00:12:31,218
Along any axis
you measure brains,
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00:12:31,220 --> 00:12:34,821
whether that's empathy
or intelligence or aggression,
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00:12:34,823 --> 00:12:36,756
you find a big distribution.
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00:12:36,758 --> 00:12:39,192
Not all brains are the same.
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You are your brain,
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00:12:41,496 --> 00:12:45,432
and your brain is a delicate,
highly complex apparatus.
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00:12:45,434 --> 00:12:49,603
Injury or disease can alter
its chemical balance
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00:12:49,605 --> 00:12:51,639
and physical integrity,
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00:12:51,641 --> 00:12:54,643
which can alter
your personality.
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00:12:54,645 --> 00:12:57,679
If you were to damage your thumb
in an accident,
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00:12:57,681 --> 00:13:00,115
that wouldn't change you
as a person,
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00:13:00,117 --> 00:13:02,684
but if you damage
an equivalently sized
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00:13:02,686 --> 00:13:04,118
chunk of brain tissue,
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00:13:04,120 --> 00:13:06,521
that can change
your risk taking,
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00:13:06,523 --> 00:13:08,055
your decision making,
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00:13:08,057 --> 00:13:10,825
and even, perhaps,
whether you become a murderer.
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00:13:15,398 --> 00:13:16,798
In 1966,
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00:13:16,800 --> 00:13:20,201
Charles Whitman climbed
to the top of the tower
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00:13:20,203 --> 00:13:22,136
on the U.T. Austin campus,
247
00:13:22,138 --> 00:13:25,072
and he indiscriminantly
shot 48 people.
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00:13:25,074 --> 00:13:28,142
The only thing that matched
the horror of this event
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00:13:28,144 --> 00:13:30,011
was the unexpected nature of it.
250
00:13:30,013 --> 00:13:31,913
There was nothing in his history
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00:13:31,915 --> 00:13:34,816
that would have predicted
this sort of behavior.
252
00:13:34,818 --> 00:13:38,219
He was an engineering student.
He worked as a bank teller.
253
00:13:38,221 --> 00:13:41,155
He lived with his wife
and his mother-in-law.
254
00:13:41,157 --> 00:13:42,957
So what could explain this?
255
00:13:42,959 --> 00:13:46,661
Well, in his suicide note,
he said, "When this is all over,
256
00:13:46,663 --> 00:13:49,097
I want an autopsy
to be performed."
257
00:13:49,099 --> 00:13:50,932
And what they found in his brain
258
00:13:50,934 --> 00:13:53,300
was a tumor about the size
of a walnut,
259
00:13:53,302 --> 00:13:55,936
and it was pressing on a region
of the brain
260
00:13:55,938 --> 00:13:57,204
called the amygdala,
261
00:13:57,206 --> 00:13:59,672
which is involved
in fear and aggression.
262
00:13:59,674 --> 00:14:03,276
The amygdala
is the center of emotion --
263
00:14:03,278 --> 00:14:05,845
the source of
our primal desires.
264
00:14:05,847 --> 00:14:08,915
It is held in check
by the frontal lobes
265
00:14:08,917 --> 00:14:12,819
and the temporal lobes --
the centers of self-control.
266
00:14:12,821 --> 00:14:16,790
We all have subconscious demons
that we keep in check,
267
00:14:16,792 --> 00:14:21,428
but when the frontal or
temporal lobes are compromised,
268
00:14:21,430 --> 00:14:23,497
startling behaviors
can emerge --
269
00:14:23,499 --> 00:14:26,867
behaviors we call evil.
270
00:14:26,869 --> 00:14:30,938
This is what probably happened
to Charles Whitman.
271
00:14:30,940 --> 00:14:35,042
He sensed that something
was wrong with his brain.
272
00:14:35,044 --> 00:14:39,546
He could no longer control
his violent impulses.
273
00:14:39,548 --> 00:14:42,483
And one of the battles
that humans have to fight
274
00:14:42,485 --> 00:14:45,352
is short-term versus
long-term decision making.
275
00:14:45,354 --> 00:14:47,922
We have impulses
that we want to gratify,
276
00:14:47,924 --> 00:14:49,791
and we have longer-term thinking
277
00:14:49,793 --> 00:14:52,026
that try to squelch
those impulses.
278
00:14:52,028 --> 00:14:53,661
Let's say that I'm considering
279
00:14:53,663 --> 00:14:56,030
throwing this brick
through this window --
280
00:14:56,032 --> 00:14:57,798
part of me maybe wants to do it,
281
00:14:57,800 --> 00:14:59,867
part of me feels
it's an illegal act
282
00:14:59,869 --> 00:15:02,370
and I'll get caught
and I'll get in trouble.
283
00:15:02,372 --> 00:15:05,373
And it's an arm wrestle between
these different things.
284
00:15:05,375 --> 00:15:07,442
Some people are better
at this than others.
285
00:15:13,283 --> 00:15:16,685
David believes we can
strengthen our willpower
286
00:15:16,687 --> 00:15:18,187
with a little workout.
287
00:15:18,189 --> 00:15:22,058
Together with neuroscientist
Stephen Laconte,
288
00:15:22,060 --> 00:15:26,730
he is testing something called
"the prefrontal gym."
289
00:15:26,732 --> 00:15:28,631
There are no treadmills here,
290
00:15:28,633 --> 00:15:32,435
just a scanner that lets people
see how their brains respond
291
00:15:32,437 --> 00:15:34,737
when they flex
the mental muscles
292
00:15:34,739 --> 00:15:36,406
that govern self-control.
293
00:15:36,408 --> 00:15:38,441
You're going to hear
some buzzing.
294
00:15:38,443 --> 00:15:43,079
Today, David and Steven are
conducting their first-ever test
295
00:15:43,081 --> 00:15:44,914
on a criminal offender,
296
00:15:44,916 --> 00:15:47,183
a man whose cocaine addiction
297
00:15:47,185 --> 00:15:50,853
led him to steal
from his friends and family.
298
00:15:50,855 --> 00:15:53,088
Right now,
what this gentleman is doing
299
00:15:53,090 --> 00:15:55,891
is he's looking at images
of drug-use cues,
300
00:15:55,893 --> 00:15:59,094
and we're asking him to
either enhance his craving
301
00:15:59,096 --> 00:16:01,230
to these cues
or suppress them.
302
00:16:04,201 --> 00:16:07,202
When the addict sees images
of drug use,
303
00:16:07,204 --> 00:16:09,805
his own craving
for drugs spikes.
304
00:16:09,807 --> 00:16:13,942
The fMRI scanner sees this
increased activity in the brain
305
00:16:13,944 --> 00:16:17,045
and displays it
as a measurement on a bar.
306
00:16:17,047 --> 00:16:21,316
When the craving networks
in his brain are revving high,
307
00:16:21,318 --> 00:16:23,252
the bar moves to the red,
308
00:16:23,254 --> 00:16:26,389
but when he fights
his dangerous urges,
309
00:16:26,391 --> 00:16:29,626
he can push the bar back
toward the blue.
310
00:16:29,628 --> 00:16:31,896
With this bio-feedback,
311
00:16:31,898 --> 00:16:36,735
he's able to train his brain
to resist his impulses.
312
00:16:36,737 --> 00:16:39,437
He's doing great.
I mean, he's actually...
313
00:16:39,439 --> 00:16:41,306
Eventually, David and Steven
314
00:16:41,308 --> 00:16:43,942
hope to take this technology
to prisons
315
00:16:43,944 --> 00:16:46,946
to try to help criminals
not repeat their mistakes.
316
00:16:46,948 --> 00:16:49,148
The beauty about
the prefrontal gym
317
00:16:49,150 --> 00:16:51,416
is that people
are helping themselves.
318
00:16:51,418 --> 00:16:54,720
If they choose to strengthen
their long-term decision making,
319
00:16:54,722 --> 00:16:56,788
this is the way
they can do that.
320
00:16:56,790 --> 00:16:59,324
It doesn't change anything
about the person,
321
00:16:59,326 --> 00:17:01,627
it just gives them
a better opportunity
322
00:17:01,629 --> 00:17:03,596
to make good
long-term decisions.
323
00:17:05,298 --> 00:17:07,367
But there are some
324
00:17:07,369 --> 00:17:11,337
for whom this technique
may never work -- psychopaths.
325
00:17:11,339 --> 00:17:13,472
They can pass for normal,
326
00:17:13,474 --> 00:17:17,543
but they are capable of
terrifying acts of evil.
327
00:17:17,545 --> 00:17:22,015
Soon, a revolution in brain
science may give us the tools
328
00:17:22,017 --> 00:17:26,086
to spot evil brains before
they ever commit a crime.
329
00:17:27,054 --> 00:17:29,321
Psychopaths can inflict physical
330
00:17:29,323 --> 00:17:31,557
and psychological harm on others
331
00:17:31,559 --> 00:17:34,193
without feeling a shred
of remorse.
332
00:17:34,986 --> 00:17:38,787
They are the people
most of us consider evil,
333
00:17:38,789 --> 00:17:42,002
and there are more of them
than you might suspect --
334
00:17:42,004 --> 00:17:44,305
up to 3% of the population.
335
00:17:45,089 --> 00:17:47,690
That's a lot of dangerous minds.
336
00:17:47,692 --> 00:17:50,860
What if one of them was yours?
337
00:17:50,862 --> 00:17:55,198
If something was wrong
with your brain,
338
00:17:55,200 --> 00:17:57,366
how would you know?
339
00:17:57,368 --> 00:18:01,437
If Jim Fallon got a look
inside your head,
340
00:18:01,439 --> 00:18:03,272
he could tell you.
341
00:18:03,274 --> 00:18:06,976
He has spent his career studying
the anatomy of the brain,
342
00:18:06,978 --> 00:18:09,678
with an emphasis
on psychopathic killers.
343
00:18:09,680 --> 00:18:11,046
Six years ago,
344
00:18:11,048 --> 00:18:13,215
two of my colleagues
in psychiatry
345
00:18:13,217 --> 00:18:15,718
brought me a whole bunch
of these scans.
346
00:18:15,720 --> 00:18:18,487
So we're doing PET scans
but also some fMRI's,
347
00:18:18,489 --> 00:18:20,656
and about 3/4
of the way through,
348
00:18:20,658 --> 00:18:22,791
I notice
a very definite pattern.
349
00:18:22,793 --> 00:18:26,295
And it turns out that these were
scans of really bad killers --
350
00:18:26,297 --> 00:18:29,064
serial killers,
and very violent killers.
351
00:18:29,066 --> 00:18:32,834
Jim has identified
the unique brain structure
352
00:18:32,836 --> 00:18:34,669
of psychopathic murderers.
353
00:18:34,671 --> 00:18:37,338
Here are the areas
of the brain --
354
00:18:37,340 --> 00:18:39,974
amygdala,
anterior temporal lobe,
355
00:18:39,976 --> 00:18:43,077
orbital cortex,
medial prefrontal cortex,
356
00:18:43,079 --> 00:18:46,147
cingulate,
back here to the hippocampus,
357
00:18:46,149 --> 00:18:48,115
back down --
see, it makes a big loop.
358
00:18:48,117 --> 00:18:50,785
These are the areas that are
turned off in psychopaths.
359
00:18:50,787 --> 00:18:56,890
Our brain anatomy radically
affects how we see the world.
360
00:18:56,892 --> 00:18:58,926
How a normal person
would see the world,
361
00:18:58,928 --> 00:19:01,128
it would be like driving around
in this car.
362
00:19:01,130 --> 00:19:03,731
A normal person would be
watching their speed.
363
00:19:03,733 --> 00:19:06,900
They would be putting themselves
in other people's shoes.
364
00:19:06,902 --> 00:19:09,703
How fast would you go?
What if you had kids here?
365
00:19:09,705 --> 00:19:11,105
And you'd be looking at people,
366
00:19:11,107 --> 00:19:13,140
they'd be looking at you,
nothing to hide.
367
00:19:23,318 --> 00:19:28,088
The world of the psychopathic
mind is just quite different.
368
00:19:28,090 --> 00:19:32,325
It's like driving around
in this dark car at night.
369
00:19:32,327 --> 00:19:36,830
Now I'm protected from people
seeing who I really am.
370
00:19:40,101 --> 00:19:41,534
As a psychopath,
371
00:19:41,536 --> 00:19:45,404
one would look out and you'd see
these forms walking around,
372
00:19:45,406 --> 00:19:47,407
and they're no longer people.
373
00:19:47,409 --> 00:19:49,508
And so, in this way, you know,
374
00:19:49,510 --> 00:19:52,378
the psychopath
is able to use the night.
375
00:19:52,380 --> 00:19:55,014
That is, the night
of not connecting
376
00:19:55,016 --> 00:19:58,117
with empathy and emotion
with other people,
377
00:19:58,119 --> 00:20:00,286
but seeing them
as objects to use
378
00:20:00,288 --> 00:20:03,489
and to, if they get in the way,
just run them over.
379
00:20:03,491 --> 00:20:07,027
Jim estimates
that at least 40 genes
380
00:20:07,029 --> 00:20:10,764
contribute to anti-social
personality disorders
381
00:20:10,766 --> 00:20:13,234
and psychopathic brain patterns.
382
00:20:13,236 --> 00:20:16,771
These genes influence
whether you're violent,
383
00:20:16,773 --> 00:20:18,940
narcissistic, or homicidal.
384
00:20:18,942 --> 00:20:22,210
So, if you have the genetics
of a killer
385
00:20:22,212 --> 00:20:25,079
and the brain anatomy
of a killer,
386
00:20:25,081 --> 00:20:28,048
are you destined
to become a killer?
387
00:20:28,050 --> 00:20:29,483
For Jim Fallon,
388
00:20:29,485 --> 00:20:33,721
this question was about to
become uncomfortably personal.
389
00:20:33,723 --> 00:20:36,524
Worried about
Alzheimer's disease,
390
00:20:36,526 --> 00:20:40,394
he decided to run brain scans
on his entire family.
391
00:20:40,396 --> 00:20:44,230
All of the tests came back
fine -- except for one.
392
00:20:44,232 --> 00:20:47,467
So I was comparing at that time
all these brains of killers,
393
00:20:47,469 --> 00:20:50,536
and I had these sheets that
I was analyzing on my desk,
394
00:20:50,538 --> 00:20:52,838
and I thought they had
gotten mixed up.
395
00:20:52,840 --> 00:20:55,474
That is, I thought one of
our family's patterns
396
00:20:55,476 --> 00:20:57,509
was mixed up
with the murderers',
397
00:20:57,511 --> 00:21:00,245
'cause it looked just like
the murderers' brains.
398
00:21:00,247 --> 00:21:02,814
And, of course,
it turned out to be my brain.
399
00:21:02,816 --> 00:21:07,319
Jim's brain showed the
telltale psychopathic coldness
400
00:21:07,321 --> 00:21:10,589
around the amygdala
and the orbital cortex.
401
00:21:10,591 --> 00:21:14,227
When I first saw this,
I actually just kind of laughed.
402
00:21:14,229 --> 00:21:16,830
You know, I took it
as like it was funny --
403
00:21:16,832 --> 00:21:18,198
a little bit in denial.
404
00:21:18,200 --> 00:21:19,966
And it was a little confusing,
405
00:21:19,968 --> 00:21:22,202
but I thought I took it
pretty well.
406
00:21:22,204 --> 00:21:23,470
Next,
407
00:21:23,472 --> 00:21:27,575
Jim analyzed his genetic profile
and family history.
408
00:21:27,577 --> 00:21:31,946
He found that he had inherited
dozens of high-risk genes
409
00:21:31,948 --> 00:21:35,917
and had ancestors who had been
convicted of murder.
410
00:21:42,190 --> 00:21:45,259
Then he asked his family
and friends
411
00:21:45,261 --> 00:21:46,860
if he showed
psychopathic traits.
412
00:21:46,862 --> 00:21:49,129
They said, "Well, Jim,
we've known all along
413
00:21:49,131 --> 00:21:51,632
"you're a psychopath -- you just
don't really hurt anybody.
414
00:21:51,634 --> 00:21:54,033
"You play with everybody's head,
you manipulate people,
415
00:21:54,035 --> 00:21:56,236
you're too competitive,
you got to win everything."
416
00:21:56,238 --> 00:21:57,370
You know, all this stuff.
417
00:21:57,372 --> 00:21:59,205
They said, "but, you know,
but you're funny,
418
00:21:59,207 --> 00:22:00,941
"and, you know,
you don't swing at people,
419
00:22:00,943 --> 00:22:02,943
"you don't do any of that,
so we just let it go,
420
00:22:02,945 --> 00:22:04,712
but everybody knows
you're a psychopath."
421
00:22:04,714 --> 00:22:08,316
So which is the real Jim?
422
00:22:08,318 --> 00:22:12,487
The esteemed scientist
and life of the party,
423
00:22:12,489 --> 00:22:15,690
or the dangerous man revealed
by the brain scans?
424
00:22:15,692 --> 00:22:19,493
I kind of thought
I really knew myself,
425
00:22:19,495 --> 00:22:20,828
and so I became
very confident --
426
00:22:20,830 --> 00:22:22,263
that I was interested
in the brain,
427
00:22:22,265 --> 00:22:23,998
I was studying it,
I felt confident in myself.
428
00:22:24,000 --> 00:22:27,769
When this happened, you know,
when I was 60,
429
00:22:27,771 --> 00:22:29,337
that was a shock, actually,
430
00:22:29,339 --> 00:22:32,607
when I finally accepted that
I wasn't who I thought I was.
431
00:22:32,609 --> 00:22:36,244
Jim discovered
an unsettling truth,
432
00:22:36,246 --> 00:22:38,680
but he was left with a mystery.
433
00:22:38,682 --> 00:22:42,183
If he has the brain and genes
of a killer,
434
00:22:42,185 --> 00:22:44,252
why isn't he a killer?
435
00:22:44,254 --> 00:22:47,288
But given all the, you know,
the genetic risk factors
436
00:22:47,290 --> 00:22:50,191
and how my brain is, you know,
where it's kind of stuck,
437
00:22:50,193 --> 00:22:51,225
as it were,
438
00:22:51,227 --> 00:22:54,930
I look like
I really dodged a bullet.
439
00:22:54,932 --> 00:22:56,732
And it was because my parents
440
00:22:56,734 --> 00:22:59,534
and my aunts and my uncles
and my grandparents
441
00:22:59,536 --> 00:23:03,005
are the people who really kept
me happy, that's for sure.
442
00:23:03,007 --> 00:23:04,773
Talk about nature/nurture --
443
00:23:04,775 --> 00:23:07,809
that's when nature/nurture
was really happening,
444
00:23:07,811 --> 00:23:09,310
in a very positive way.
445
00:23:10,980 --> 00:23:14,782
High-risk genes
and unusual brain architecture
446
00:23:14,784 --> 00:23:17,451
do not automatically
create killers.
447
00:23:17,453 --> 00:23:20,621
Childhood abuse seems to be
a critical ingredient.
448
00:23:20,623 --> 00:23:23,124
A loving home helped Jim Fallon
449
00:23:23,126 --> 00:23:25,626
become a boisterous
overachiever,
450
00:23:25,628 --> 00:23:28,396
not a dangerous psychopath.
451
00:23:28,398 --> 00:23:31,899
Not all psychopaths
are violent criminals,
452
00:23:31,901 --> 00:23:35,369
but what do we do
with the ones who are?
453
00:23:35,371 --> 00:23:38,539
Do we simply remove them
from society
454
00:23:38,541 --> 00:23:40,508
and throw away the key?
455
00:23:40,510 --> 00:23:42,543
Perhaps not.
456
00:23:42,545 --> 00:23:47,515
Researchers are not pioneering a
radical way to eliminate evil --
457
00:23:47,517 --> 00:23:51,753
by literally zapping it
out of your brain.
458
00:23:54,316 --> 00:23:58,286
Some religions hold that man
is a creature of evil.
459
00:23:58,996 --> 00:24:02,598
We may struggle to follow
the righteous path,
460
00:24:02,600 --> 00:24:04,834
but ultimately, we will fail.
461
00:24:04,836 --> 00:24:07,270
We are all sinners.
462
00:24:07,272 --> 00:24:11,976
But what if we could
make people good?
463
00:24:17,316 --> 00:24:19,017
In Zurich, Switzerland,
464
00:24:19,019 --> 00:24:21,753
Dr. Christian Ruff
is blazing a trail
465
00:24:21,755 --> 00:24:25,090
on a controversial frontier
of neuroscience --
466
00:24:25,092 --> 00:24:28,092
changing the way people think
and behave.
467
00:24:28,094 --> 00:24:30,929
Human behavior is quite
unique in the animal world.
468
00:24:30,931 --> 00:24:32,497
In contrast to us animals,
469
00:24:32,499 --> 00:24:34,966
we don't just follow
our self interest,
470
00:24:34,968 --> 00:24:37,802
but we're able to actually
control our behavior
471
00:24:37,804 --> 00:24:40,204
in line with social norms
and rules --
472
00:24:40,206 --> 00:24:42,874
pretty much like the rules
of this card game
473
00:24:42,876 --> 00:24:44,342
that we're playing here.
474
00:24:44,344 --> 00:24:47,612
People are always tempted
to break rules,
475
00:24:47,614 --> 00:24:49,047
to break laws,
476
00:24:49,049 --> 00:24:53,117
and the problem really is that
if some people start doing this,
477
00:24:53,119 --> 00:24:56,421
if some people start
breaking out of social norms,
478
00:24:56,423 --> 00:24:58,356
then very soon, chaos ensues.
479
00:25:00,661 --> 00:25:03,128
So it's quite important
for society
480
00:25:03,130 --> 00:25:06,031
to put in place
strong-punishment threats --
481
00:25:06,033 --> 00:25:09,367
to basically instill in
people's heads the knowledge
482
00:25:09,369 --> 00:25:12,604
that if they violate
certain norms, certain laws,
483
00:25:12,606 --> 00:25:14,405
then they will get punished.
484
00:25:16,242 --> 00:25:19,011
What do we do with
people who cannot or will not
485
00:25:19,013 --> 00:25:20,713
follow the rules of the game?
486
00:25:20,715 --> 00:25:25,818
Christian's solution is to zap
their brains with electricity.
487
00:25:25,820 --> 00:25:28,487
These players
are linked together
488
00:25:28,489 --> 00:25:30,623
in an interactive video game.
489
00:25:30,625 --> 00:25:32,392
They all wear headbands
490
00:25:32,394 --> 00:25:35,162
designed to pass
electrical current
491
00:25:35,164 --> 00:25:39,098
into the parts of their brains
that control altruism,
492
00:25:39,100 --> 00:25:42,836
or concern for the well-being
of others.
493
00:25:42,838 --> 00:25:45,638
With a targeted
electrical pulse,
494
00:25:45,640 --> 00:25:50,477
Christian has found that he can
make people, including himself,
495
00:25:50,479 --> 00:25:52,278
much more considerate.
496
00:25:52,280 --> 00:25:53,613
In the beginning,
497
00:25:53,615 --> 00:25:56,349
there's a slight tingling
underneath the electrodes
498
00:25:56,351 --> 00:25:58,584
at the scalp for
about 30 seconds or so,
499
00:25:58,586 --> 00:26:01,120
but afterwards I can't
really feel it anymore,
500
00:26:01,122 --> 00:26:03,189
whether I'm being stimulated
or not.
501
00:26:03,191 --> 00:26:06,592
Today, Christian
and the volunteers
502
00:26:06,594 --> 00:26:10,162
are going to play a simple
profit-sharing game.
503
00:26:10,164 --> 00:26:13,132
Each player is allotted
a sum of money
504
00:26:13,134 --> 00:26:16,936
and decides how much to give
an anonymous partner.
505
00:26:16,938 --> 00:26:20,841
You have to decide on every
trial what your opponent --
506
00:26:20,843 --> 00:26:24,145
the other person --
will consider to be fair.
507
00:26:24,147 --> 00:26:26,380
Here in this example,
for instance,
508
00:26:26,382 --> 00:26:28,916
I can decide now the white
is what I keep
509
00:26:28,918 --> 00:26:31,352
and the black is what I give
to the other person.
510
00:26:31,354 --> 00:26:33,221
So I keep a lot -- 70%.
511
00:26:33,223 --> 00:26:34,622
And, in this condition,
512
00:26:34,624 --> 00:26:36,757
the other player
can now punish me.
513
00:26:36,759 --> 00:26:38,492
Oh, and that's what they did.
514
00:26:38,494 --> 00:26:41,662
They took everything away
from me for being so selfish.
515
00:26:41,664 --> 00:26:46,267
At first, most of
the players act selfishly,
516
00:26:46,269 --> 00:26:49,871
but then the electricity
begins to flow.
517
00:26:49,873 --> 00:26:52,807
After five minutes
of brain stimulation,
518
00:26:52,809 --> 00:26:54,308
Christian and the other players
519
00:26:54,310 --> 00:26:56,244
are now much more willing
to compromise.
520
00:26:58,248 --> 00:27:00,147
This is another punishment
trial, actually,
521
00:27:00,149 --> 00:27:02,083
so I'm going to give a bit more
now, actually,
522
00:27:02,085 --> 00:27:03,918
to the other person.
523
00:27:03,920 --> 00:27:06,454
And let's see whether
they punish me or not.
524
00:27:06,456 --> 00:27:08,356
Oh, no, okay.
525
00:27:08,358 --> 00:27:10,291
So I get to keep what I
basically chose for myself.
526
00:27:10,293 --> 00:27:15,429
The headbands have coerced
the players into being nice.
527
00:27:15,431 --> 00:27:18,432
These behavioral changes
are temporary.
528
00:27:18,434 --> 00:27:21,101
They persist
for about 20 minutes
529
00:27:21,103 --> 00:27:23,203
after the stimulation stops,
530
00:27:23,205 --> 00:27:26,639
but Christian believes
that repeated treatment
531
00:27:26,641 --> 00:27:29,475
will condition people
to act kindly.
532
00:27:29,477 --> 00:27:34,180
Could this technology be used
in jails and mental hospitals
533
00:27:34,182 --> 00:27:36,014
to suppress evil thoughts
534
00:27:36,016 --> 00:27:39,384
and turn criminals
back into good people?
535
00:27:39,386 --> 00:27:42,688
I think we're definitely
not at the point yet
536
00:27:42,690 --> 00:27:44,457
where we can employ
these methods
537
00:27:44,459 --> 00:27:46,693
to make people
who commit very selfish acts
538
00:27:46,695 --> 00:27:48,261
that harm others
not commit them.
539
00:27:48,263 --> 00:27:50,397
But by understanding
these brain processes
540
00:27:50,399 --> 00:27:52,934
and how we can affect them
with brain stimulation,
541
00:27:52,936 --> 00:27:54,768
we might be getting there
one day.
542
00:27:54,770 --> 00:27:56,537
It's definitely
not too far away.
543
00:27:56,539 --> 00:28:00,541
Neuroscientist
Jim Fallon agrees.
544
00:28:00,543 --> 00:28:04,045
In fact, he believes
we already have the means
545
00:28:04,047 --> 00:28:06,847
to do it with drugs.
546
00:28:06,849 --> 00:28:09,617
The big question is,
can we control those behaviors
547
00:28:09,619 --> 00:28:11,485
that we consider evil
in people?
548
00:28:11,487 --> 00:28:13,187
And the answer's probably "yes."
549
00:28:13,189 --> 00:28:15,322
It depends on how far
you want to go.
550
00:28:15,324 --> 00:28:19,192
What one could do is just simply
snort, intranasally --
551
00:28:19,194 --> 00:28:21,895
up the nose --
different compounds.
552
00:28:21,897 --> 00:28:25,832
And so let's say one has
a problem with impulse control.
553
00:28:25,834 --> 00:28:29,336
Well, impulse control
happens to be that area --
554
00:28:29,338 --> 00:28:33,573
orbital cortex -- right above
where the smell receptors are,
555
00:28:33,575 --> 00:28:35,843
so it's the first thing
that's hit.
556
00:28:35,845 --> 00:28:38,412
So one could simply put in
pieces of DNA
557
00:28:38,414 --> 00:28:40,914
that will be snorted in
and concentrate
558
00:28:40,916 --> 00:28:42,282
at the orbital cortex
559
00:28:42,284 --> 00:28:45,385
that will increase those
neurotransmitter systems
560
00:28:45,387 --> 00:28:47,854
that increase the function
of the area
561
00:28:47,856 --> 00:28:49,523
and, therefore, inhibition.
562
00:28:49,525 --> 00:28:52,959
We could decide to do it so that
everybody has their own cocktail
563
00:28:52,961 --> 00:28:54,427
of behavioral modification.
564
00:28:54,429 --> 00:28:56,863
It will only last
a certain amount of time.
565
00:28:56,865 --> 00:29:00,100
This is something
that society could do.
566
00:29:00,102 --> 00:29:04,103
It sounds a little wild,
but it's completely doable.
567
00:29:04,105 --> 00:29:09,076
We may soon have the
means to reshape damaged brains
568
00:29:09,078 --> 00:29:12,813
and stop violent behavior
before it starts.
569
00:29:12,815 --> 00:29:16,416
But this neuroscientist thinks
eliminating evil
570
00:29:16,418 --> 00:29:20,620
will take more than peering
into the heads of criminals.
571
00:29:20,622 --> 00:29:24,590
We must also probe the minds
of those who judge them.
572
00:29:26,321 --> 00:29:28,689
Today, we tend
to punish criminals
573
00:29:28,691 --> 00:29:32,426
more for the harm they inflict
than for their evil intent.
574
00:29:33,120 --> 00:29:34,553
That's understandable.
575
00:29:34,555 --> 00:29:37,823
It is much easier to count
bodies and bullet holes
576
00:29:37,825 --> 00:29:41,460
than determine what was going on
in someone else's brain.
577
00:29:41,462 --> 00:29:45,598
But what if we could
peer into criminal minds
578
00:29:45,600 --> 00:29:49,402
and judge them on the evil
we find there?
579
00:29:49,404 --> 00:29:51,905
That day may be coming soon,
580
00:29:51,907 --> 00:29:55,975
when the true motives
of not just criminals,
581
00:29:55,977 --> 00:30:00,446
but also the people who judge
them, are laid bare.
582
00:30:00,448 --> 00:30:03,816
As one of the few people
in the world
583
00:30:03,818 --> 00:30:07,186
who is both a biologist
and a lawyer,
584
00:30:07,188 --> 00:30:11,423
Owen Jones has a unique view
of criminal justice.
585
00:30:11,425 --> 00:30:12,858
Objection, Your Honor.
586
00:30:12,860 --> 00:30:15,694
This mock courtroom is part
of Owen's laboratory,
587
00:30:15,696 --> 00:30:18,564
a place where he explores
what goes on
588
00:30:18,566 --> 00:30:22,068
in the minds of criminals,
judges, and juries.
589
00:30:22,070 --> 00:30:24,470
So, we're seeing a lot
of increasing effort
590
00:30:24,472 --> 00:30:26,439
to bring neuroscience
into the courtroom,
591
00:30:26,441 --> 00:30:27,674
for better or for worse.
592
00:30:27,676 --> 00:30:31,044
Sometimes, for example,
criminal defendants
593
00:30:31,046 --> 00:30:34,848
may be bringing evidence
of their own brain scans
594
00:30:34,850 --> 00:30:39,218
to try to avoid
conviction altogether --
595
00:30:39,220 --> 00:30:41,654
to say "I should not be held
responsible."
596
00:30:41,656 --> 00:30:45,625
But Owen's focus is not
so much on criminal brains
597
00:30:45,627 --> 00:30:48,828
as on the brains of the people
who determine their guilt.
598
00:30:48,830 --> 00:30:53,133
And he's finding that the ways
we judge evil behavior
599
00:30:53,135 --> 00:30:54,567
are severely flawed.
600
00:30:54,569 --> 00:30:57,237
Our legal system
requires jurors
601
00:30:57,239 --> 00:30:59,072
to be amateur mind readers.
602
00:30:59,074 --> 00:31:02,442
They're supposed to figure out
not just who did it,
603
00:31:02,444 --> 00:31:06,080
but what was the mental state
of the person who did it?
604
00:31:06,082 --> 00:31:08,749
Do you remember the police
coming to your house
605
00:31:08,751 --> 00:31:09,850
later that night?
606
00:31:09,852 --> 00:31:12,019
Yeah. They woke me up
about 3:00 a.m.
607
00:31:12,021 --> 00:31:15,322
Owen has found
that jurors are not good
608
00:31:15,324 --> 00:31:18,926
at distinguishing the gray areas
of criminal intent.
609
00:31:18,928 --> 00:31:22,363
Emotional circumstances
will bias their decisions.
610
00:31:25,000 --> 00:31:28,436
Say two men drive home drunk
from the bar.
611
00:31:30,006 --> 00:31:32,473
One hits a tree.
612
00:31:33,942 --> 00:31:35,743
The other hits a tree...
613
00:31:35,745 --> 00:31:38,012
and the little girl in front
of the tree.
614
00:31:38,014 --> 00:31:41,282
The first man
will get a light sentence.
615
00:31:41,284 --> 00:31:44,886
The man who killed the girl
will go to prison.
616
00:31:44,888 --> 00:31:48,089
The question is, for how long?
617
00:31:50,459 --> 00:31:52,994
Owen has found that jurors
are likely
618
00:31:52,996 --> 00:31:56,164
to give this man the stiffest
possible sentence.
619
00:31:56,166 --> 00:31:58,533
Jurors have a tendency
to think
620
00:31:58,535 --> 00:32:01,402
that the driver had
a higher level of intent --
621
00:32:01,404 --> 00:32:02,971
a knowing level of intent,
622
00:32:02,973 --> 00:32:06,174
instead of a reckless
level of intent, for example --
623
00:32:06,176 --> 00:32:07,509
than he actually did.
624
00:32:07,511 --> 00:32:09,310
In other words,
625
00:32:09,312 --> 00:32:11,246
even though the two drivers
626
00:32:11,248 --> 00:32:14,115
had exactly the same level
of intent,
627
00:32:14,117 --> 00:32:17,486
jurors will believe the driver
who hit the girl
628
00:32:17,488 --> 00:32:20,256
was more evil
than the other driver.
629
00:32:20,258 --> 00:32:25,027
When emotions dominate,
judgments are harsh.
630
00:32:25,029 --> 00:32:29,464
At other times, jurors will shut
off their emotions completely
631
00:32:29,466 --> 00:32:33,669
and inexplicably excuse
murderous intent.
632
00:32:33,671 --> 00:32:35,170
Suppose, for example,
633
00:32:35,172 --> 00:32:37,106
that I want to poison
my friend Amy,
634
00:32:37,108 --> 00:32:38,474
causing her death --
635
00:32:38,476 --> 00:32:41,744
and I believe her to be
very allergic to poppy seeds.
636
00:32:41,746 --> 00:32:43,880
I sprinkle poppy seeds
liberally,
637
00:32:43,882 --> 00:32:45,281
and I serve it to her.
638
00:32:45,283 --> 00:32:46,482
Unbeknownst to me,
639
00:32:46,484 --> 00:32:48,718
Amy's not allergic
to poppy seeds,
640
00:32:48,720 --> 00:32:50,252
and so she does not die.
641
00:32:50,254 --> 00:32:53,122
But let's vary the circumstances
a little bit.
642
00:32:53,124 --> 00:32:56,459
Suppose that, although she's not
allergic to poppy seeds,
643
00:32:56,461 --> 00:32:58,361
Amy is very allergic to peanuts,
644
00:32:58,363 --> 00:33:01,130
and unbeknownst to me,
who wants to kill her,
645
00:33:01,132 --> 00:33:03,933
the chef in the kitchen
puts peanuts on her salad.
646
00:33:03,935 --> 00:33:05,568
If she dies as a consequence,
647
00:33:05,570 --> 00:33:08,471
a lot of people will start
to think, "Wait a second,
648
00:33:08,473 --> 00:33:11,441
"I shouldn't be punished
for attempting to murder her
649
00:33:11,443 --> 00:33:14,678
because I didn't actually cause
the harm that befell her."
650
00:33:14,680 --> 00:33:18,249
So in a way, the fact that
somebody else caused her death
651
00:33:18,251 --> 00:33:21,552
operates as a shield to
my liability and punishment.
652
00:33:21,554 --> 00:33:23,154
Once again,
653
00:33:23,156 --> 00:33:26,225
the criminal has been judged
on results,
654
00:33:26,227 --> 00:33:27,960
not on his intentions.
655
00:33:27,962 --> 00:33:29,695
Owen suspects there is
656
00:33:29,697 --> 00:33:32,531
a neurological explanation
for this.
657
00:33:32,533 --> 00:33:35,535
To find out what happens
in the brain
658
00:33:35,537 --> 00:33:38,471
when we try to gauge
levels of evil,
659
00:33:38,473 --> 00:33:42,375
Owen has put judges and jurors
into brain scanners
660
00:33:42,377 --> 00:33:46,479
and presented them with
criminal scenarios like these.
661
00:33:46,481 --> 00:33:50,049
He first discovered
significant activity
662
00:33:50,051 --> 00:33:54,554
in a region called the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
663
00:33:54,556 --> 00:33:57,690
It governs analysis
and cognition.
664
00:33:57,692 --> 00:33:58,925
This part of the brain
665
00:33:58,927 --> 00:34:01,461
seems to be doing a lot
of the heavy lifting
666
00:34:01,463 --> 00:34:04,297
in deciding whether or not
to punish someone at all.
667
00:34:04,299 --> 00:34:08,301
But once the prefrontal
cortex decides to punish,
668
00:34:08,303 --> 00:34:11,437
another part of the brain
decides how much --
669
00:34:11,439 --> 00:34:14,407
the amygdala,
which governs our emotions.
670
00:34:14,409 --> 00:34:17,242
The punishment decision
is a product
671
00:34:17,244 --> 00:34:19,577
of two very different regions --
672
00:34:19,579 --> 00:34:21,246
one highly analytic,
673
00:34:21,248 --> 00:34:25,383
one more emotional that is
setting a punishment amount --
674
00:34:25,385 --> 00:34:29,520
that are separately deployed
but yet jointly involved
675
00:34:29,522 --> 00:34:32,491
in yielding
the punishment decision.
676
00:34:32,493 --> 00:34:37,330
Balancing the emotional
and analytic parts of the brain
677
00:34:37,332 --> 00:34:41,368
is the magic trick required
of every judge and jury.
678
00:34:41,370 --> 00:34:45,005
If jurors have reduced function
in either area,
679
00:34:45,007 --> 00:34:48,442
their punishment decisions
could be flawed.
680
00:34:48,444 --> 00:34:51,344
Research like this
may enable us
681
00:34:51,346 --> 00:34:52,879
to de-bias decisions
682
00:34:52,881 --> 00:34:56,616
really focused on those aspects
of a person's behavior
683
00:34:56,618 --> 00:34:59,452
that we want to take
most into account
684
00:34:59,454 --> 00:35:02,154
when setting degrees
of culpability.
685
00:35:02,156 --> 00:35:04,389
Owen hopes his findings
686
00:35:04,391 --> 00:35:07,325
will eventually lead
to fairer sentencing --
687
00:35:07,327 --> 00:35:10,328
that we will eventually
have a legal system
688
00:35:10,330 --> 00:35:12,129
that only imprisons people
689
00:35:12,131 --> 00:35:14,765
who truly want to do harm
to others...
690
00:35:14,767 --> 00:35:18,770
rather than those who simply
made tragic errors.
691
00:35:18,772 --> 00:35:22,708
But even if we improve the way
we judge criminals,
692
00:35:22,710 --> 00:35:27,312
it will not be the endgame in
the struggle to eliminate evil.
693
00:35:27,314 --> 00:35:31,283
Because,
as history bears witness,
694
00:35:31,285 --> 00:35:36,855
sometimes entire societies
lose their moral compass.
695
00:35:36,857 --> 00:35:40,692
How do we stop the evil
that poisons whole nations?
696
00:35:43,397 --> 00:35:48,167
We know that evil can twist
and bend solitary minds,
697
00:35:49,048 --> 00:35:53,585
but there's another form of evil
that infects whole societies.
698
00:35:53,587 --> 00:35:58,624
It compels ordinary people
to support genocidal regimes
699
00:35:58,626 --> 00:36:02,461
and economies based on slavery.
700
00:36:02,463 --> 00:36:05,197
What makes societies turn bad?
701
00:36:05,199 --> 00:36:08,534
Can we stop it from happening?
702
00:36:08,536 --> 00:36:11,336
Karen Wynn's experiments
at Yale
703
00:36:11,338 --> 00:36:15,340
show that even babies have
a sense of good and evil
704
00:36:15,342 --> 00:36:17,642
and seem to prefer goodness.
705
00:36:17,644 --> 00:36:20,511
But Karen runs
another experiment
706
00:36:20,513 --> 00:36:22,780
that is far less comforting.
707
00:36:22,782 --> 00:36:27,852
It shows that the human tendency
to identify with groups
708
00:36:27,854 --> 00:36:31,089
and discriminate against those
not in "our" group
709
00:36:31,091 --> 00:36:33,558
starts very young.
710
00:36:33,560 --> 00:36:34,726
In this study,
711
00:36:34,728 --> 00:36:37,729
we present the baby
with two food choices --
712
00:36:37,731 --> 00:36:40,432
graham crackers
and, say, green beans.
713
00:36:40,434 --> 00:36:43,301
Then, we bring babies
into our experimental room,
714
00:36:43,303 --> 00:36:45,603
and they're introduced
to two puppets.
715
00:36:45,605 --> 00:36:47,872
And each of the puppets
gets a choice
716
00:36:47,874 --> 00:36:50,340
between graham crackers
and green beans.
717
00:36:50,342 --> 00:36:53,944
Mmm! Yum!
I like graham crackers!
718
00:36:53,946 --> 00:36:57,114
The other puppet shows
the opposite preferences.
719
00:36:57,116 --> 00:37:01,618
Ew! Yuck!
I don't like graham crackers.
720
00:37:01,620 --> 00:37:03,287
What we find, quite reliably,
721
00:37:03,289 --> 00:37:05,656
is that babies tend to choose
the puppet
722
00:37:05,658 --> 00:37:08,626
who expressed the same tastes
as they themselves did.
723
00:37:08,628 --> 00:37:10,427
Which one do you like?
724
00:37:10,429 --> 00:37:11,862
That one!
725
00:37:11,864 --> 00:37:14,665
Okay, good job!
Does he get a hug?
726
00:37:14,667 --> 00:37:18,435
Babies not only prefer
puppets that agree with them,
727
00:37:18,437 --> 00:37:20,737
they also like to see puppets
that don't agree with them
728
00:37:20,739 --> 00:37:21,805
get punished.
729
00:37:21,807 --> 00:37:23,006
Hi.
730
00:37:23,008 --> 00:37:25,442
The puppet who doesn't like
graham crackers
731
00:37:25,444 --> 00:37:26,810
has become an outsider --
732
00:37:26,812 --> 00:37:29,513
not part of the baby's group.
733
00:37:29,515 --> 00:37:32,249
My heart felt sad
when I got that result
734
00:37:32,251 --> 00:37:36,019
because it did tell me that
this preference for similarity
735
00:37:36,021 --> 00:37:37,421
that we're observing
736
00:37:37,423 --> 00:37:40,023
in babies under a year of age
737
00:37:40,025 --> 00:37:44,527
isn't just a trivial,
superficial, fleeting thing,
738
00:37:44,529 --> 00:37:46,462
but it is having consequences
739
00:37:46,464 --> 00:37:48,998
across their
psychological terrain,
740
00:37:49,000 --> 00:37:52,401
in terms of how they think
about these characters,
741
00:37:52,403 --> 00:37:55,971
what they expect of them,
their perceptions of them,
742
00:37:55,973 --> 00:38:00,142
and also how they want them to
be treated in the social world.
743
00:38:00,144 --> 00:38:04,113
Karen believes our
brains are built to care more
744
00:38:04,115 --> 00:38:06,949
about people close to us,
in our group,
745
00:38:06,951 --> 00:38:09,185
than those further away.
746
00:38:09,187 --> 00:38:12,621
And we segregate ourselves
along lines drawn as simply
747
00:38:12,623 --> 00:38:15,424
as whether or not you like
graham crackers
748
00:38:15,426 --> 00:38:18,227
or have the same color skin.
749
00:38:18,229 --> 00:38:22,899
Sometimes this can have
very bad consequences.
750
00:38:33,776 --> 00:38:37,279
Steve Pinker is
an experimental psychologist
751
00:38:37,281 --> 00:38:39,814
and cognitive scientist
at Harvard.
752
00:38:39,816 --> 00:38:43,018
A lot of the worst
atrocities in history
753
00:38:43,020 --> 00:38:44,753
came about when one group
754
00:38:44,755 --> 00:38:47,122
dehumanized
or demonized another.
755
00:38:47,124 --> 00:38:49,624
They may have thought
that they were subhuman,
756
00:38:49,626 --> 00:38:52,460
that they were like vermin,
like rats or cockroaches.
757
00:38:52,462 --> 00:38:54,395
A lot of moral progress
might come
758
00:38:54,397 --> 00:38:55,863
when we change our mind-set,
759
00:38:55,865 --> 00:38:58,166
and instead of dividing people
into groups,
760
00:38:58,168 --> 00:39:00,334
think of the species as a group.
761
00:39:00,336 --> 00:39:03,338
Think of the world
as being one big village
762
00:39:03,340 --> 00:39:05,673
and everyone is part
of our tribe.
763
00:39:05,675 --> 00:39:09,143
Steve thinks
this change in thinking,
764
00:39:09,145 --> 00:39:11,880
from identifying
with small groups
765
00:39:11,882 --> 00:39:16,184
to belonging to one inclusive
society, is slowly happening.
766
00:39:16,186 --> 00:39:20,823
The most obvious effect has been
a dramatic decline in violence.
767
00:39:20,825 --> 00:39:23,927
When I tell people that
violence has been in decline
768
00:39:23,929 --> 00:39:25,261
for long stretches of time
769
00:39:25,263 --> 00:39:28,465
and that we're probably living
in the most peaceful era
770
00:39:28,467 --> 00:39:31,435
in the history of our species,
they think I'm nuts.
771
00:39:31,437 --> 00:39:34,972
So I had to make the case with
a book that was 800 pages long,
772
00:39:34,974 --> 00:39:38,575
with graph after graph
and statistic after statistic,
773
00:39:38,577 --> 00:39:41,078
just to prove the point
to people.
774
00:39:46,485 --> 00:39:48,120
For example,
not far from where I'm standing,
775
00:39:48,122 --> 00:39:49,588
there's an area of Boston
776
00:39:49,590 --> 00:39:51,956
that used to be called
the "Combat Zone"
777
00:39:51,958 --> 00:39:53,991
because there were
so many murders
778
00:39:53,993 --> 00:39:55,560
and stabbings and muggings.
779
00:39:55,562 --> 00:39:58,729
Now it's being re-colonized
by young urban professionals.
780
00:39:58,731 --> 00:40:01,832
Or a few hundred years ago,
there were wars going on,
781
00:40:01,834 --> 00:40:03,267
not far from here,
782
00:40:03,269 --> 00:40:06,370
that involved enemies like
Canada and Britain and France.
783
00:40:06,372 --> 00:40:08,940
Now the idea of a war
with those countries
784
00:40:08,942 --> 00:40:10,574
would seem like a bad joke.
785
00:40:10,576 --> 00:40:11,576
300 years ago,
786
00:40:11,578 --> 00:40:13,544
I might have been burned
at the stake
787
00:40:13,546 --> 00:40:15,146
for beliefs that I hold today,
788
00:40:15,148 --> 00:40:16,815
and a hundred years before that,
789
00:40:16,817 --> 00:40:19,351
I might have had my head cut off
with a hatchet
790
00:40:19,353 --> 00:40:20,486
in the Indian wars.
791
00:40:20,488 --> 00:40:23,288
It is difficult to overstate
792
00:40:23,290 --> 00:40:26,259
just how violent and cruel
the world was
793
00:40:26,261 --> 00:40:29,396
for much of the history
of the human race.
794
00:40:29,398 --> 00:40:33,700
Once, slavery was legal
everywhere in the world.
795
00:40:33,702 --> 00:40:38,338
Now it is officially illegal
everywhere in the world.
796
00:40:38,340 --> 00:40:41,375
War and murder
were daily facts of life.
797
00:40:41,377 --> 00:40:45,078
Now, for most people,
they are exceptional events.
798
00:40:45,080 --> 00:40:47,881
Steve attributes
most of this change
799
00:40:47,883 --> 00:40:51,685
to the increased role of
government and the rule of law.
800
00:40:51,687 --> 00:40:53,087
But he also thinks
801
00:40:53,089 --> 00:40:56,390
people today are sharper
than their ancestors.
802
00:40:56,392 --> 00:40:57,825
You might wonder,
803
00:40:57,827 --> 00:41:00,995
are people getting nicer
because they're getting smarter?
804
00:41:00,997 --> 00:41:03,731
And, believe it or not,
the answer is, maybe yes.
805
00:41:03,733 --> 00:41:07,903
I.Q. scores have been increasing
throughout the 20th Century
806
00:41:07,905 --> 00:41:09,605
and all over the world.
807
00:41:09,607 --> 00:41:11,440
No one knows exactly why,
808
00:41:11,442 --> 00:41:15,310
but it's probably a combination
of increased schooling
809
00:41:15,312 --> 00:41:18,079
and a trickle down
of technological
810
00:41:18,081 --> 00:41:22,017
and analytic concepts from
science into everyday life.
811
00:41:22,019 --> 00:41:25,386
But, as a result,
it's not farfetched to think
812
00:41:25,388 --> 00:41:28,889
that people could see
the benefits of cooperation
813
00:41:28,891 --> 00:41:31,758
and see the downsides
of violence more
814
00:41:31,760 --> 00:41:35,095
as they start to intellectualize
their lives.
815
00:41:35,097 --> 00:41:39,200
Mass communication
and mass transportation
816
00:41:39,202 --> 00:41:42,704
are breaking down the barriers
between us,
817
00:41:42,706 --> 00:41:45,674
and so is
our increasing knowledge
818
00:41:45,676 --> 00:41:47,977
of how the human mind works.
819
00:41:47,979 --> 00:41:52,849
The more we learn, the more we
see the humanity within us all,
820
00:41:52,851 --> 00:41:55,351
even those we think of as evil.
821
00:41:58,322 --> 00:42:03,926
A world without a trace of evil
will remain a fantasy,
822
00:42:03,928 --> 00:42:07,363
but the better we understand
the brain,
823
00:42:07,365 --> 00:42:09,632
the better able
we are to identify
824
00:42:09,634 --> 00:42:11,768
the most dangerous among us
825
00:42:11,770 --> 00:42:15,371
and stop them
before they do serious harm.
826
00:42:15,373 --> 00:42:17,807
We may never eliminate evil,
827
00:42:17,809 --> 00:42:21,311
but perhaps we can contain it
828
00:42:21,313 --> 00:42:25,015
and reduce the damage it does
to our lives.
829
00:42:25,680 --> 00:42:29,680
== sync, corrected by elderman ==